Cervical cancer
Find out about the risk factors, signs and symptoms of cervical cancer – and how screening and vaccination can significantly reduce your risk.
Overview
How common is cervical cancer?
Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer in women worldwide, with around 662,000 new cases a year and 670,000 deaths each year. The incidence of cervical cancer is higher in low- and middle-income countries due to limited access to HPV (human papillomavirus) vaccination, cervical screening and treatment services.
Risks
Over 99% of all cervical cancer is caused by infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV), a very common sexually transmitted virus that around 80% of people will be exposed to at some point in their lives.
In most cases, the immune system clears HPV naturally. However, in some women, the virus can persist for many years, leading to changes in cervical cells that may eventually develop into cancer if not detected and treated early.
In the same way, the HPV virus can also cause cancer of the mouth or anus in both men and women.
The key cervical cancer risks include:
Sexual behaviour
Having a higher number of sexual partners is associated with an increased risk of HPV infection. While condoms reduce the risk of many sexually transmitted infections, they do not fully protect against HPV, as the virus can affect the surrounding genital area.
For this reason, cervical screening remains important for all women, regardless of sexual history or contraceptive use.
Smoking
Smoking can increase the risk of cervical cancer in women with HPV. Smoking is thought to weaken the immune system’s ability to clear HPV, and may also damage cervical cell DNA, making cancerous changes more likely over time.
Weakened immune systems
As with smoking, conditions or treatments that weaken the immune system – such as HIV/AIDS or long-term immunosuppressant medication – can make it harder for the body to clear HPV, increasing the risk of cervical cancer.
Family history
Women with a close female relative (mother/sister/daughter) who has had cervical cancer may have a higher risk. This may reflect shared genetic factors, similar lifestyles or differences in cervical screening uptake within families.
Race and ethnicity
Differences in cervical cancer risk due to race or ethnicity are often linked to access to screening, vaccination uptake, and broader healthcare inequalities. In the US, Hispanic/Latina women have the highest rates of cervical cancer and are more likely to be diagnosed at a later stage.
Symptoms
Cervical cancer often develops slowly, and early changes may not cause obvious symptoms. Being aware of potential warning signs - and acting on them promptly - can make a significant difference to outcomes.
For effective cervical cancer prevention and risk reduction, you should be aware of what to look out for and if you have any of these symptoms, don’t be embarrassed, seek medical advice straight away.
If any of the symptoms below are new, persistent, or unusual for you, it’s important to speak to your healthcare provider or gynecologist as soon as possible.
The symptoms to look out for are:
Unusual vaginal bleeding
Pain and discomfort during sex
Unpleasant smelling vaginal discharge
Bleeding after the menopause
Leg/pelvic pain
Weight loss
Constant fatigue
Be Cervical Cancer Aware
How to reduce your risk of cervical cancer
A number of changes to your lifestyle can significantly reduce your risk of cervical cancer including:
Reporting to GP any abnormal bleeding/symptoms
Being vaccinated against HPV (Human papillomavirus)
Having regular cervical screening from age 25+
Stopping smoking
Reduce risk
There are several practical steps you can take to significantly reduce your risk of cervical cancer:
How to reduce your risk
Attending regular cervical screening from age 25 onwards
Having the HPV vaccination, if eligible. The HPV vaccination is not currently recommended after the age of 45.
Reporting any unusual bleeding or symptoms promptly
Stopping smoking, or seeking support to quit
Be Cervical Cancer Aware
Are you showing any signs of these common symptoms of suspected cervical cancer?
Unusual vaginal bleeding
Pain and discomfort during sex
Unpleasant smelling vaginal discharge
Bleeding after the menopause
Leg pain
Pelvic pain
Weight loss
Constant fatigue
Unusual vaginal bleeding
Pain and discomfort during sex
Unpleasant smelling vaginal discharge
Bleeding after the menopause
Leg pain
Pelvic pain
Weight loss
Constant fatigue
Getting tested
Cervical screening
There are 13 types of high-risk HPV associated with cervical cancer, with the majority of cases linked to the two most common high-risk sub-types, HPV 16 and 18. Importantly, any treatment that may be required to the cervix is exactly the same for all high-risk sub-types.
Cervical screening is normally recommended from age 25 and can be performed by HPV swab testing or, by a traditional Pap test (also called Pap smear).
You should discuss the best screening options with your employer, health care provider, or insurer.
Cervical cancer is very treatable if detected at an early stage, and, reassuringly, the vast majority of abnormalities are detected at a pre-cancerous stage. At this stage, treatment is normally a minor outpatient procedure under local anaesthetic.
HPV vaccination
Routine HPV vaccination of children has already been shown to significantly reduce the rate of pre-cancerous changes in the cervix. As these populations reach early adulthood, cervical cancer rates are expected to continue to fall.
Treatment
If screening identifies abnormal cells, further assessment is usually carried out using colposcopy - a detailed examination of the cervix, followed by a biopsy. Many abnormalities can be treated simply and effectively, often as a minor outpatient procedure, preventing cervical cancer from developing.
Clinical insight informed by specialist advice from Mr Jullien Brady, Consultant Gynecologist (UK).
Cervical cancer is one of the most preventable cancers. Regular screening, vaccination, and early assessment of symptoms together offer powerful protection - and when changes are detected early, treatment is highly effective.